CHAPTER 8 IDENTITY

1. Why is identity development an especially important issue in adolescent development? What are the developmental and life changes that occur during this period that provoke identity issues in adolescents (such as asking themselves, "Who am I?")

2. How do SELF-CONCEPTIONS change in structure and content in adolescents (in contrast to children)? Give some concrete examples of the major characteristics of self-conceptions during adolescence. Are there consequences and advantages of having more complex self-conceptions? What are these, and how do they affect younger vs. older adolescents?

3. What is the ACTUAL self, the IDEAL self, and the FEARED self? How do these different aspects of the self influence the adolescent's behaviors and motivations? What is the TRUE self, and the FALSE self? How do they influence the adolescent's feelings of self-esteem and depression?

4. What are the BIG FIVE PERSONALITY traits? How do genetic and environmental influences interact to produce individual differences in these personality traits? These personality traits are largely STABLE from childhood, to adolescence and adulthood. What does this mean? Do these traits also CHANGE from childhood, to adolescence and adulthood? How so?

5. A lot of research has shown that in general, self-esteem becomes increasingly stable with age and less likely to fluctuate in response to different situations. On the other hand, Simmons also found that fluctuations in self-image, low self-esteem, and high self-consciousness are most likely to occur in early adolescence (12-14 yrs old). How would you explain these "contradictory" findings, using the concepts of BAROMETRIC SELF-ESTEEM and BASELINE SELF-ESTEEM? Why is barometric self-esteem more likely to be unstable during early adolescence? (three factors)

6. Some researchers argue that studies showing the stability of self-esteem across adolescence masks important DIFFERENCES in self-esteem TRAJECTORIES (or paths, or patterns) in the transition to junior high. What are these different trajectories that have been found?

7. Aside from a global sense of self-esteem, adolescents also evaluate themselves in distinct domains and relationships. What are some domains and relationships in which adolescents may feel differently about themselves? What aspects contribute the most to adolescents' global self-esteem?

8. What are general GENDER differences in self-esteem? What accounts for these differences? What are general SOCIAL CLASS differences in self-esteem? What accounts for these differences? What factors contribute to high self-esteem (or at least comparable with majority adolescents) among MINORITY adolescents? In which situations may they be more vulnerable to a poor self-image?

9. What are the major factors that contribute to HIGH or LOW self-esteem? (three factors) What are the consequences of low self-esteem for psychological well-being and deviant behaviors?

10. Describe ERIK ERIKSON's theoretical framework of psychosocial development. What are PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISES?

11. What is the fundamental task facing the adolescent, when he is in the stage of IDENTITY VS IDENTITY DIFFUSION? What is the role of social relationships and interactions in resolving this crisis?

12. How does the SOCIETY in which the adolescent develops influence whether the task of identity formation will be relatively easy or difficult? What features of modern US society, for instance, (compared to non-industrialized societies) may make identity development more complicated for the adolescent?

13. What is the PSYCHOSOCIAL MORATORIUM? What takes place during this period, and why is this good for adolescents' identity development? Do all adolescents experience a moratorium? Why or why not? What may be the consequences for adolescents who do not undergo this?

14. What is the outcome of having resolved one's sense of identity? How is this experienced or felt? Is one's identity fully and completely resolved in adolescence? Explain your answer.

15. Describe the states of IDENTITY DIFFUSION, IDENTITY FORECLOSURE, and NEGATIVE IDENTITY. What factors or circumstances lead to these "failures" in identity development?

16. How is IDENTITY STATUS studied? Describe the approach developed by James Marcia. What are the four categories of identity status, and on what dimensions are they different from each other?

17. In general, what are the psychological characteristics and personality traits associated with each identity status? Which status has the best outcomes? What PARENTING PRACTICES are associated with the different identity statuses?

18. According to longitudinal and cross-sectional studies, at what age span are changes in identity status most frequently observed (or, when is movement towards identity achievement most likely to take place)?

19. Describe the general process that minority adolescents go through in establishing an ETHNIC IDENTITY. What are the components of ETHNIC SOCIALIZATION, which parents apply to ease the process of ethnic identity development?

20. What are the positive effects of having a strong ethnic identity? What are the complexities and difficulties in contemporary society that are uniquely faced by minority adolescents in developing their identities?

21. Describe the four approaches to ethnicity: ASSIMILATION, MARGINALITY, SEPARATION, and BICULTURALISM. Which of these is the most "psychologically healthy" orientation in establishing one's ethnic identity?

22. What is the GENDER INTENSIFICATION HYPOTHESIS? What does this say about the development of gender-role identity in adolescence? Why and in what situations are sex-role stereotypes intensified during adolescence?

23. What is ANDROGYNY? Which of these sex-role orientations--- androgyny, masculinity, or femininity--- results in the highest self-acceptance for adolescent males and females? What accounts for the gender differences in this regard?